A brief history of buildings

Surveyors must be able to date and categorise buildings since it can help to identify potential problems and influence valuations. Geoff Hunt explains how the use of a timeline can assist in understanding buildings This article explains how a timeline can aid understanding of construction history and identifies the main architectural styles and their problems. A travel through time In the past 600 years, one factor has separated earlier buildings from more modern ones: design. Surveyors came before architects and builders came before both. Buildings were built with what was at hand and the more powerful a person was, the better their shelter would be. This method of building, used from medieval times, is called vernacular construction. By adding dates to this knowledge, an insight emerges into what a building tells us. Hovels were for poor people and not many built before 1600 survive. So, a small house supposedly built in the 1400s is likely to have been important and if it is called “Shepard’s’ cottage” it is probably a fake. Large surviving vernacular houses date from 1300 to 1700 small surviving vernacular houses date from 1600 and to the 1800s. The aristocracy and the church were so removed from the masses that studying country houses and cathedrals skews the picture of the standard of build at the time. For example, some early stained glass dates from 1137 but glass was an uncommon building material before the early 1700s. Buildings always reflected wealth and the next main feature in the history of construction is the emergence of specialists. The work of craftsmen becomes evident in the larger buildings from around 1700. The most common version of vernacular is “polite vernacular”, where a master craftsman has applied a basic form of aesthetic design. From the 1800s, the vernacular gave way to architectural design, again most evident in large houses. By the 1900s, most buildings were built by design and speculative development was the main early method of procurement. Once architecture had taken hold, categorising buildings became more complex. Style became the defining category and it was affiliated with recognisable eras of monarchy. Important knowledge The timeline (see right) shows the development of vernacular features, the architectural styles in their context and highlights that these factors merge. It is still debated where the periods lie but it is important to recognise that the Victorians did not suddenly decide to build differently from the Georgians. In order to understand buildings, it is vital to know what materials and events influenced designers and builders. Timeline linking key events and styles and associated problems Style/period Key events/features Key problems/knowledge base 1400 – 1500 Vernacular; polite vernacular. Power, wealth and poverty Local builders use local materials and techniques. Layout of building is often a clue to its use. Location of chimneys and front doors significant. Most likely to be listed. Large country houses and churches are not a good reference for common building standards. Few vernacular small houses exist pre-1400. Know basic timber and cob construction methods since load paths are difficult to identify. Alterations to such buildings must not compromise the load path. Damp is a common problem caused by modernisation. Rising damp is rare – look for all other causes first. Buildings are capable of accommodating movement. 1500 -1600 Tudor Mainly polite vernacular exists today. Older buildings removed or renovated. Timber is still main material. Bricks made locally and evidence of wealth (if original to building). 1574: brick size standardised. Era most associated with jetted buildings and dense towns. Glass very expensive. Load paths as above. Shops with converted open façades can be problematic. Damp – as above. Lime render and oak have good capacity for movement. Structures not rigid and may not evenly distribute new loads. Few Tudor buildings in pure form. 1600 -1700 Jacobean Wealth, status and power expressed in materials, chimneys and casement windows. Classicism of country house filtering down. French and Dutch influence (gables and brick bond). Great fire of London gave rise to new national standards. Glass from Italy and France expensive. First vertical sliding sashes appear six panes over six. Stone fashionable. Basic housing stock built much as before. Timber shortage leading to inferior builds. Steep roofs with heavier new materials spreading. Rain water run-off introduced but drainage basic. Check all downpipes. Solid brick walls with render can be problematic. Lead paint appeared; it may be necessary to reuse in listed builds. 1700- 1800 Georgian               Georgian terrace: London, Bath, Cheltenham. Main influence: Classicism from Rome and Greece: elegance and symmetry. Roofs shallow and parapets popular. Chimneys move to party walls. Walls project above roof lines. UK produces own pantiles and Welsh slate popular. Cylinder glass cheaper: windows four over four. Most houses still using lamps and candles. Brick and stucco fashionable. One of most popular styles in the market today. Industrial revolution makes materials universally available and industrial buildings become larger with large spans. In 1707, windows must be set back. Know the different classic orders: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. Victorian windows incorrectly placed on Georgian buildings is common. Parapets prone to leak. Speculative building results in unknown structures behind uniformed façades. Internal gutters cause blockage problems. Brick quality inconsistent. Georgian façades usually added to older buildings and not always pinned back. Lime mortars repointed with cement are a common cause of rapid deterioration of brickwork. Original lead not welded. 1800 – 1900 Victorian and Edwardian Extended success from industrial revolution. New massed-produced elements and engineered frames. Swags and laurels on façades give way to repetitive geometric shapes. Gothic popular with steep roofs and tracery. Middle classes emerge but still divergence between rich and poor over design generally meant better housing for masses. Sliding sash with two over two panes then one over one. The iron I beam designed to great effect. Gas lighting common. Terrace housing poorly built around industrial areas and vulnerable to progressive collapse if cross walls are removed in more than one building. Asbestos becoming more commercially available. Cavity walls and damp-proof courses introduced but tying in of outer leaf can be problematic. Victorian style often overlaid on older buildings, giving false sense of robustness. Protection of cast-iron columns poor. Mild steel encased in concrete bursts (Regents disease). Cement mortars started to replace lime. 1900- 2000 Profession of architecture established as mode of planning and design. World wars see rebuilding with new forms of construction. Styles influenced by Europe but strong UK traditional style preferred. Concrete, steel, asbestos and plastics better understood and detailed. Buildings taller and mass-housebuilding takes place. Particular styles give rise to particular forms of construction. Electrical supply widely available from 1926 with construction of national grid. Artificial classical motifs applied to houses with more prefabrication and return of timber frame construction evident. No commercial buildings built in second world war. Non-traditional housing built after war. Off-site construction gave rise to major defects. (Boot, Orlit, Cornish Unit). Some uninsurable. 1970s oil crisis increased material costs and 1980 recession created skills shortage – general era of poor-quality housing stock. Use of asbestos, lead paint and cement additives hazardous and now need careful control. Early flat roofs had poor felt coverings and increasing insulation associated with greater ventilation often not considered. Modern materials added to older buildings causing moisture problems. Poor-quality land leading to subsidence, contamination, flooding and damp. Composite metal cladding on commercial buildings raises concerns with regard to fire spread.     Why this matters Surveyors interface with specialists such as lawyers, architects, engineers, insurers, conservation officers and clients and each one has a different perspective on property. The surveyor has to communicate at differing levels in order to achieve a successful outcome since it knows the most about the building. This position requires the application of a rounded knowledge. Information from the internet and publications is often prescriptive and not intuitive to the surveyor’s day-to-day requirements. Specialist information can be isolated and impractical. By developing a timeline, it is possible to form a map that acts as a reference. Thanks to a timeline, it is easier to research specific areas that help to build a picture of the types of buildings with which a surveyor may be dealing. However, through his or her career, a surveyor will be confronted by buildings outside his or her comfort zone. By returning to the basic chart, the knowledge base can be added to in context.   Further Reading Architectural Timeline http://www.Geoffrey-Hunt.com Illustrated Handbook of Vernacular Architecture Brunskill RW, Faber & Faber Investigating Hazardous & Deleterious Materials Rushton T, RICS Books   Geoff Hunt is a chartered building surveyor and director of Geoffrey Hunt Building Surveying Services